Vocabulary Workshop Level C Review Units 7-9 Answers

Ultimate Guide to Punctuation and Styling: Rules, Examples, and Usage

Punctuation marks are used in written English to separate groups of words for meaning and emphasis; to convey an idea of the variations of pitch, volume, pauses, and intonation of the spoken language; and to help avoid ambiguity. The uses of the standard punctuation marks are discussed and illustrated in the following lines. 

Apostrophe

1- Indicates the possessive of nouns and indefinite pronouns. The possessive of singular nouns and some plural nouns is formed by adding 's. The possessive of plural nouns ending in an s or z sound is usually formed by adding only an apostrophe; the possessive of irregular plurals is formed by adding 's.

• the boy’s mother
• birds’ migrations
• Douglas’s crimes
• the Stevenses’ house
• anyone’s guess
• people’s opinions
• Degas’s drawings
• children’s laughter

2- Marks the omission of letters in contracted words.

• didn’t
• they’re
• she’d

3- Marks the omission of digits in numerals.

• class of ’03
• in the ’90s

4- Often forms plurals of letters, figures, abbreviations, symbols, and words referred to as words.

• dot your i’s and cross your t’s
• three 8’s or three 8s
• these Ph.D.’s or these Ph.D.s
• used &’s instead of and’s

Brackets [ ]

1- Enclose editorial comments or clarifications inserted into quoted material.

• His embarrassment had peaked [sic] her curiosity.

2- Enclose insertions that supply missing letters or that alter the form of the original word.

• His letter continues, “If D[eutsch] won’t take the manuscript, perhaps someone at Faber will.”
• He dryly observed that they bought the stock because “they want[ed] to see themselves getting richer.”

3- Function as parentheses within parentheses.

• Posner’s recent essays (like his earlier Law and Literature [1988]) bear this out.

Colon (:)

1- Introduces an amplifying word, phrase, or clause that acts as an appositive.

• That year Handley’s old obsession was replaced with a new one: jazz.
• The issue comes down to this: Will we offer a reduced curriculum, or will we simply cancel the program?

2- Introduces a list or series.

• Three abstained: Britain, France, and Belgium.

3- Introduces a clause or phrase that explains, illustrates, amplifies, or restates what has gone before.

• Dawn was breaking: the distant peaks were already glowing with the sun’s first rays.

4- Introduces lengthy quoted material set off from the rest of the text by indentation but not by quotation marks. It may also be used before a quotation enclosed by quotation marks in running text.

• The Rumpole series has been well described as follows:

Rumpled, disreputable, curmudgeonly barrister Horace Rumpole often wins cases despite the disdain of his more aristocratic colleagues. Fond of cheap wine (“Château        Thames    Embankment”) and...

The inscription reads: “Here lies one whose name was writ in water.”

5- Separates elements in bibliographic publication data and page references, in biblical citations, and in formulas used to express time and ratios.

• Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997
• Scientific American 240 (Jan.):122–33
• John 4:10
• 8:30 a.m.
• a ratio of 3:5

6- Separates titles and subtitles.

• Southwest Stories: Tales from the Desert

7- Follows the salutation in formal correspondence.

• Dear Judge Wright:
• Ladies and Gentlemen:

8- Follows headings in memorandums and business letters.

• TO:
• Reference:

9- Is placed outside quotation marks and parentheses when it punctuates the larger sentence.

• The problem becomes most acute in “Black Rose and Destroying Angel”: plot simply ceases to exist.

Comma (,)

1- Separates main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as and, but, or, nor, so), and occasionally short parallel clauses not joined by conjunctions.

• She knew very little about the new system, and he volunteered nothing.
• The trial lasted for nine months, but the jury took only four hours to reach its verdict.
• She came, she saw, she conquered.

2- Sets off adverbial clauses and phrases that begin or interrupt a sentence. If the sentence can be easily read without a comma, the comma may be omitted.

• Having agreed to disagree, they turned to other matters.
• The report, after being read aloud, was put up for consideration.
• In January the roof fell in.
• As cars age they depreciate.

3- Sets off transitional words and phrases (such as indeed, however) and words that introduce examples (such as namely, for example).

• Indeed, no one seemed to have heard of him.
• They concluded, however, that it was meaningless.
• Three have complied, namely, Togo, Benin, and Ghana.

4- Sets off contrasting expressions within a sentence.

• This project will take six months, not six weeks.

5- Separates words, phrases, or clauses in a series. Many writers omit the comma before the last item in a series whenever this would not result in ambiguity.

• Men, women[,] and children crowded aboard the train.
• Her job required her to pack quickly, to travel often[,] and to have no personal life.
• He came down the steps as reporters shouted questions, flashbulbs popped[,] and the crowd pushed closer.

6- Separates two or more adjectives that modify a noun. It is not used between two adjectives when the first modifies the combination of the second plus the noun it modifies.

• in a calm, reflective manner
• the harsh, damp, piercing wind
• a good used car
• the lone bald eagle

7- Sets off a nonrestrictive (nonessential) word, phrase, or clause that is in apposition to a preceding or following noun.

• We visited Verdun, site of the famous battle.
• A cherished landmark, the Hotel Sandburg was spared.
• Its author, Maria Olevsky, was an expert diver.

8- Separates a direct quotation from a phrase identifying its source or speaker.

• She answered, “I’m leaving.”
• “I suspect,” Bob observed, “we’ll be hearing more.”
• "How about another round?" Elaine piped up.
  
• “The network is down” was the reply she feared.

9- Sets off words in direct address and mild interjections.

• The facts, my fellow Americans, are very different.
• This is our final notice, Mr. Sutton.
• Ah, the mosaics in Ravenna are matchless.

10- Precedes a tag question.

• That’s obvious, isn’t it?

11- Indicates the omission of a word or phrase used in a parallel construction earlier in the sentence.

• Eight councillors cast their votes for O’Reilly; six, for Mendez.
• Seven voted in favor, three against.

12- Is used to avoid ambiguity that might arise from adjacent words.

• Under Mr. James, Madison High School flourished.

13- Groups numerals into units of three to separate thousands, millions, and so on. It is not used in street addresses, page numbers, and four-digit years.

• 2,000 case histories
• a fee of $12,500
• numbering 3,450,000
• 12537 Wilshire Blvd.
• page 1415
• in 3000 B.C.
  

14- Separates a surname from a following title or degree, and often from the abbreviations Jr. and Sr.

• Sandra H. Cobb, Vice President
• Lee Herman Melville, M.D.
• Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. or Douglas Fairbanks Jr.

15- Sets off elements of an address (except for zip codes) and full dates. When only the month and year are given, the comma is usually omitted.

• Write to Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC 20233.
• In Reno, Nevada, their luck ran out.
• On July 26, 2000, the court issued its opinion.
• October 1929 brought an end to all that.

16- Follows the salutation in informal correspondence and follows the complimentary close in a letter.

• Dear Aunt Sarah,
• Sincerely yours,

Dash (—)

1- Marks an abrupt change or break in the structure of a sentence.

• The students seemed happy enough with the new plan, but the alumni—there was the problem.

2- Is used in place of commas or parentheses to emphasize parenthetical or amplifying material. In general, no punctuation immediately precedes an opening dash or immediately follows a closing dash.

• It will prevent corporations—large and small—from buying influence with campaign contributions.

3- Introduces defining phrases and lists.

• The motion was then tabled—that is, removed indefinitely from consideration.
• Davis was a leading innovator in at least three styles—bebop, cool jazz, and jazz-rock fusion.

4- Often precedes the attribution of a quotation, either immediately after the quotation or on the next line.

• Only the sign is for sale.—Søren Kierkegaard
  or
• Only the sign is for sale.
                                         —Søren Kierkegaard

5- Sets off an interrupting clause or phrase. An exclamation point or question mark may immediately precede a dash.

• If we don’t succeed—and the critics say we won’t—then the whole project is in jeopardy.
• His hobby was getting on people’s nerves—especially mine!—and he was very good at it.

Ellipsis (...)

1- Indicates the omission of one or more words within a quoted sentence. Omission of a word or phrase is indicated by three ellipsis points. If an entire sentence or more is omitted, the end punctuation of the preceding sentence (including a period) is followed by three ellipsis points. Punctuation used in the original that falls on either side of the ellipsis is often omitted; however, it may be retained, especially if this helps clarify the sentence structure. (The second and third examples below are shortened versions of the first.)

• Is it so bad, then, to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood.—Emerson
• Is it so bad, then, to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, ... and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh.
• Is it so bad, then, to be misunderstood? ... To be great is to be misunderstood.

2- Indicates that one or more lines have been omitted from a poem. The row of ellipsis points usually matches the length of the line above.

• When I heard the learned astronomer,
  ............................................................
  How soon unaccountable I became tired and sick,
  Til rising and gliding out I wandered off by myself.

3- Indicates faltering speech or an unfinished sentence in dialogue.

• “I mean ...” he stammered, “like ... How?”

Exclamation Point (!)

1- Ends an emphatic phrase, sentence, or interjection.

• Without a trace!
• There is no alternative!
• Encore!

2- Is placed within brackets, dashes, parentheses, and quotation marks when it punctuates only the enclosed material. It is placed outside them when it punctuates the entire sentence. If it falls where a comma could also go, the comma is dropped.

• All of this proves—at long last!—that we were right from the start.
• Somehow the dog got the gate open (for the third time!) and ran into the street.
• He sprang to his feet and shouted “Point of order!”
• At this rate, the national anthem will soon be replaced by “You Are My Sunshine”!
• “Absolutely not!” he snapped.
• They wouldn’t dare! she told herself over and over.

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Hyphen (-)

1- Is often used to link elements in compound words. Consult the dictionary in doubtful cases.

• secretary-treasurer
• spin-off
• cost-effective
• light-year
• middle-of-the-road
• president-elect

2- Is used to separate a prefix, suffix, or combining form from an existing word if the base word is capitalized, and often when the base word is more than two syllables long, or when identical letters would otherwise be adjacent to each other. Consult the dictionary in doubtful cases.

• pre-Victorian
• wall-like
• industry-wide
• co-opted
• recession-proof
• anti-inflationary

3- Is used in compound nouns containing a particle (usually a preposition or adverb).

• on-ramp
• falling-out
• runner-up
• right-of-way

4- Is used in most compound modifiers when placed before the noun.

• the fresh-cut grass
• a made-up excuse
• her gray-green eyes
• the well-worded statement

5- Is used with the first of two prefixes or modifiers forming a compound with the same base word.

• pre- and postoperative care
• anti- or pro-Revolutionary sympathies
• early- and mid-20th-century painters

6- Is used with written-out numbers, both cardinal and ordinal, between 21 and 99.

• forty-one years old
• his forty-first birthday
• one hundred forty-one

7- Is used in a written-out fraction employed as a modifier. A fraction used as a noun is often left open.

• a one-half share
• three fifths of the vote or three-fifths of the vote
• one one-hundredth of an inch

8- Is used between numbers and dates with the meaning “(up) to and including.” In typeset material the hyphen is replaced by the longer en dash.

• pages 128–34
• the years 1995–99

9- Is used as the equivalent of “to,” “and,” or “versus” to indicate linkage or opposition. In typeset material the longer en dash is used.

• the New York–Paris flight
• the Lincoln–Douglas debates
• a final score of 7–2

10- Marks an end-of-line division of a word.

• In 1975 smallpox, formerly a great scourge, was de-
  clared eradicated.

Parentheses ( )

1- Enclose phrases and clauses that provide examples, explanations, or supplementary facts.

• Nominations for principal officers (president, vice president, treasurer, and secretary) were approved.
• Four computers (all outdated models) were replaced.
• Although we liked Mille Fiori (their risotto was the best), we hadn’t been there in several months.

2- Enclose numerals that confirm a spelled-out number in a business or legal context.

• Delivery will be made in thirty (30) days.
• The fee is four thousand dollars ($4,000.00).

3- Enclose numbers or letters indicating individual items in a series within a sentence.

• Sentences can be classified as (1) simple, (2) multiple or compound, and (3) complex.

4- Enclose abbreviations that follow their spelled-out forms, or spelled-out forms that follow their abbreviations.

• the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• the ABA (American Booksellers Association)

5- Indicate alternative terms.

• Please sign and return the enclosed form(s).

6- Often enclose cross-references and bibliographic references, as well as publishing data in bibliographic citations.

• Specialized services are also available (see list below).
• The diagram (Fig. 3) illustrates the action of the pump.
• Subsequent studies (Braxton 1998; Roh and Weinglass 2002) have confirmed these findings.
• 3. See Stendhal, Love (New York: Penguin, 1975), 342.

7- Are used with other punctuation marks as follows:

If an independent sentence is enclosed in parentheses, its first word is capitalized and a period is placed inside the parentheses.

• The discussion was held in the boardroom. (The results are still confidential.)

If the parenthetical expression occurs within a sentence, it is uncapitalized unless it is a quotation, and does not end with a period but may end with an exclamation point, a question mark, or quotation marks.

• This short section (musicians would call it the bridge) has the song’s most distinctive harmonies.
• The background music is always Bach (does the chairman have such good taste?).
• He was distraught (“It’s my whole career!”) and refused to see anyone.

No punctuation immediately precedes an opening parenthesis within a sentence; if punctuation is required, it follows the closing parenthesis.

• I’ll get back to you tomorrow (Friday), when I have more details.

Period (.)

1- Ends a sentence or a sentence fragment that is neither a question nor an exclamation. Only one period ends a sentence.

• She asked if we were swing dancers.
• Give it your best.
• Unlikely. In fact, inconceivable.
• She liked best the sentence that read “Leda Rubin has made the impossible possible.”

2- Follows most abbreviations and some contractions.

• Calif.
• Sept.
• etc.
• Ph.D. or PhD
• e.g.
• p.m.
• dept.
• Dr.
• Jr.
• Assn.
• C.E.O. or CEO

3- Is used with a person’s initials.

• F. Scott Fitzgerald
• J. B. S. Haldane

4- Follows numerals and letters when used without parentheses in outlines and vertical lists.

• I. Objectives
    A. Economy
      1. Low initial cost
      2. Low maintenance cost
   B. Ease of operation

Question Mark (?)

1- Ends a direct question.

• “When do they arrive?” she asked.
• Was anyone seen in the area after 10 p.m.?

2- Ends a question that forms part of a sentence, but does not follow an indirect question.

• What was her motive? you may be asking.
• I naturally wondered, Will it really work?
• He asked when the club normally closed.

3- Indicates uncertainty about a fact.

• Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet (1342?–1400)

4- Is used with other punctuation marks exactly like the exclamation point.

Quotation Marks, Double (“ ”)

1- Enclose direct quotations but not indirect quotations.

• “I’m leaving,” she whispered. “This could last forever.”
• She whispered that she was leaving.
• He asked, “What went wrong?”
• The question is, What went wrong?

2- Enclose words or phrases borrowed from others, and words of obvious informality.

• They required a “biodata summary”—that is, a résumé.
• He called himself “emperor,” but he was really just a dictator.
• They were afraid the patient had “stroked out”—had a cerebrovascular accident.

3- Enclose titles of poems, short stories, essays, articles in periodicals, chapters of books, and episodes of radio and television programs.

• the article “After the Genocide” in the New Yorker
• “The Death of the Hired Man” by Robert Frost
• Poe’s “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”
• John Barth’s essay “The Literature of Exhaustion”
• The Jungle Book’s ninth chapter, “Rikki-tikki-tavi”
• M*A*S*H’s finale, “Goodbye, Farewell and Amen”

4- Enclose lines of poetry run in with the text.

• When Gilbert advised, “Stick close to your desks and never go to sea, / And you all may be rulers of the Queen’s Navee!” this latest appointee was obviously paying attention.

5- Are used with other punctuation marks as follows:

A period or comma is placed within the quotation marks.

• He smiled and said, “I’m happy for you.”
• “Too easy,” she shot back.

A colon or semicolon is placed outside the quotation marks.

• There was only one real “issue”: noise.

A dash, question mark, or exclamation point is placed inside the quotation marks when it punctuates the quoted matter only, but outside when it punctuates the whole sentence.

• She spoke of her “little cottage in the country”; she might better have called it a mansion.
• “I can’t see how—” he started to say.
• Saturdays there were dances—“sock hops”—in the gym.
• He asked, “When did she leave?”
• What is the meaning of “the open door”?
• She collapsed in her seat with a stunned “Good grief!”
• Save us from his “mercy”!

Quotation Marks, Single (‘ ’)

1- Enclose quoted material within quoted material.

• “I distinctly heard him say, ‘Don’t be late,’ and then I heard the door close.”
• This analysis is indebted to Del Banco’s “Elizabeth Bishop’s ‘Insomnia’: An Inverted View.”

2- In British usage, may enclose quoted material, in which case a quotation within a quotation is set off by double quotation marks.

• ‘I distinctly heard him say, “Don’t be late,” and then I heard the door close.’

Semicolon (;)

1- Separates related independent clauses joined without a coordinating conjunction.

• Cream the butter and sugar; add the eggs and beat well.
• The river overflowed its banks; roads vanished; freshly plowed fields turned into lakes.

2- Joins two clauses when the second includes a conjunctive adverb (such as however, indeed, thus) or a phrase that acts like one (such as in that case, as a result, on the other hand).

• It won’t be easy to sort out the facts; a decision must be made, however.
• The case could take years; as a result, many plaintiffs will accept settlements.

3- Is often used before introductory expressions such as for example, that is, and namely.

• We were fairly successful; that is, we made our deadlines and met our budget.

4- Separates phrases or items in a series when they contain commas.

• The assets include $22 million in land, buildings, and equipment; $34 million in cash and investments; and $8 million in inventory.
• The Pissarro exhibition will travel to Washington, D.C.; Manchester, N.H.; Portland, Ore.; and Oakland, Cal.
• The votes against were: Precinct 1, 418; Precinct 2, 332; Precinct 3, 256.

5- Is placed outside quotation marks and parentheses.

• They again demanded “complete autonomy”; the demand was again rejected.
• She found him urbane and entertaining (if somewhat overbearing); he found her charmingly ingenuous.

Slash (/)

1- Separates alternatives, usually representing the words or or and/or.

• alumni/ae
• his/her

2- Replaces the word "to" or "and" in some compound terms and ranges.

• 1998/99 or 1998–99
• the May/June issue or the May–June issue

3- Separates lines of poetry that are run in with the text. A space usually precedes and follows the slash.

• In Pope’s words: “’Tis with our judgments as our watches, none / Go just alike, yet each believes his own.”

4- Separates the elements in a numerical date, and numerators and denominators in fractions.

• on 9/11/01
• a 7/8-mile course

5- Represents the word "per" or "to" when used between units of measure or the terms of a ratio.

• 400,000 tons/year
• price/earnings ratio
• 29 mi/gal
• 20/20 vision

6- Punctuates some abbreviations.

• w/o (for without)
• c/o (for care of)
• I/O (for input/output)
• P/E (for price/earnings)

7- Punctuates Internet addresses.

• http://unabridged.Merriam-Webster.com/

Foreign Marks

1- Guillemets « » often enclose quotations in French and other European languages.

• Marie Antoinette est censée dire «qu’ils mangent de la brioche».

2- Spanish exclamation points ¡ ! are used in pairs to enclose an exclamatory sentence in Spanish writing.

• ¡Qué buen día!

3- Spanish question marks ¿ ? are used in pairs to enclose an interrogatory sentence in Spanish writing.

• ¿Qué es esto?

Other Styling Conventions

1- Italics are used to emphasize or draw attention to words in a sentence.

• Students must notify the dean’s office in writing of any added or dropped courses.
• She was not the star, merely a star.

2- Italics are often used for letters referred to as letters, words referred to as words, and numerals referred to as numerals.

• The g in align is silent.
• Purists still insist that data is a plural noun.
• The first 2 and the last 0 are barely legible.

3- Unfamiliar words or words having a specialized meaning are italicized when first introduced and defined in a text, but not subsequently.

• In the direct-to-consumer transaction, the publisher markets directly to the individual by mail.
• Vitiligo is a condition in which skin pigment cells stop making pigment. Treatment for vitiligo includes...

4- Foreign words and phrases that have not been fully adopted into English are italicized. In general, any word that appears in the main A–Z vocabulary of this dictionary does not need to be italicized.

• At the club such behavior was distinctly mal vu.
• The prix fixe lunch was $25.

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